Plato's theory of knowledge

Plato was a very famous philosopher in ancient Greece. He was the disciple of Socrates and the master of Aristotle. Thus, Plato holds an important position in the history of philosophy and human civilization. One of the very important things that he dealt with in his book was the theory of knowledge. It was an important theory because people even in this modern age talk about this matter. Knowledge is a very important thing for us. Without knowledge, there is little difference between animals and human beings. 

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Plato thinks that knowledge is innate. In other words, human babies are born with the ability to learn knowledge. This is important because those who oppose this idea think that human babies are born with no innate skill of acquiring knowledge. They believe that human beings are taught and then they get knowledge. Another important thing that Plato talked about in his book The Republic was Analogy of the Divided Line (or Allegory of the Divided Line). 

In his book, Plato talks about this Divided line allegory in this way: 

Now take a line which has been cut into two unequal parts, and divide each of them again in the same proportion,[2] and suppose the two main divisions to answer, one to the visible and the other to the intelligible, and then compare the subdivisions in respect of their clearness and want of clearness, and you will find that the first section in the sphere of the visible consists of images. And by images I mean, in the first place, shadows, and in the second place, reflections in water and in solid, smooth and polished bodies and the like: Do you understand? 

Yes, I understand. 

Imagine, now, the other section, of which this is only the resemblance, to include the animals which we see, and everything that grows or is made. 

The visible world is what we can see. We believe in what we see, but we may also suffer from illusion and mistakenly believe the wrong thing as we may see the right thing in a wrong way because of illusion. Ordinary people may suffer from illusion more than educated people. On the other hand, there are some natural matters that are like universal truth and are part of the belief of every human being. Who can debate with the fact, The Sun rises in the east or Ocean has a lot of water. 

The intelligible world is related to abstract things. We can understand them by using our intelligence and common sense but cannot see them. For example, mathematical ideas and geometric ideas are like this. Most of the time, we cannot see or hear them but can feel them with our intelligence. Again, ordinary people struggle to grasp them. On the other hand, educated people with years of practice and education can understand them better. 

For this reason, philosophy is important to Plato. At the time of Plato, Philosophy was considered to be the highest form of knowledge. Science was not so advanced and science was considered to be a part of philosophy. So, the knowledge of philosophers was highest because it is pure. On the other hand, the knowledge of ordinary people is lowest as it is full of mistakes from illusion. 

Ordinary people take birth and then try little to acquire knowledge. So, for them, life is not so meaningful and significant. They are just bothered about their belief. They don’t care about truth and logic. They don’t know how to justify something. On the other, philosophers always aim for higher knowledge. They try to find truth and justification. The divided line does not divide knowledge only, but it divides human beings.

Comparative study between English plosives and nasal sounds

This article aims to show an elaborate description of English plosives and nasal sounds. This essay also illustrates comparative studies between the phonetic symbols of English and Bengali plosives as well as nasals. Both plosive and nasal sounds are consonants. As a student of MA in ELT and Applied Linguistics, it is very important to know the phonetic alphabets of plosives and nasals. It will help us to pronounce English words correctly and scientifically. However, due to the short time, I have only shown similar sounds both in English and Bengali plosives and some major differences. 

Plosive: 

At first, we need to know the meaning of plosive. Plosives are known as consonant sounds. While making plosive sounds, the flow of air is completely blocked or stopped behind the articulators, such as the lips, teeth, or palate, and when it is suddenly released, it creates a bursting sound. This sound is known as plosive consonant. It is also called stop consonant. 

English plosive sounds: 

Let us take a look at the plosive sounds in English language. In English, there are six plosive sounds- /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/. These six plosive sounds can be divided into two different types depending on the vibration of the vocal cords. The plosives /p/, /t/, /k/ are voiceless while /b/, /d/, /g/ are fully voiced. 

There is another kind of plosive sound, which is known as aspiration. What makes it different from other kinds of plosive sounds is that this type of sound is pronounced with an extra puff of air for which we may hear an “h” like sound, such as /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/. 

The above mentioned six plosive sounds can be divided into three different kinds based on the places of articulation. 

When we make /p/ and /b/ sounds, the lips are pressed together. For this reason, they are called bilabial sounds. When we make /t/ and /d/ sounds, the tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge. So, they are known as alveolar sounds. The plosives /k/ and /g/ are called velar sounds because the back of the tongue is pressed against the velum. 

Nasal sounds:

Nose is one of the most important articulators. The production of sounds in which nose plays a vital role is known as nasal sounds. These are also called nasal consonants. In other words, a nasal is a consonant formed by sending out the air through the nose because it does not allow the air to escape out of the mouth. 

In English, we can find three nasal sounds- /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/. Most of the nasal sounds are voiced. We can feel a kind of vibration in the vocal cord while producing them. Of them, /m/ and /n/ are found being commonly used in most of the languages of the world. However, there are exceptions. We can also see the use of voiceless nasal consonants in a few languages, such as Burmese and Welsh. 

In mouth, the flow of air may be stopped at three places- lips, alveolar ridge and velum, resulting in bilabial, alveolar and velar nasals respectively. 

⦁    The nasal sound /m/ can be identified as bilabial nasal sound because when we pronounce it, two lips come closer to each other to make a stricture or blockage, allowing the air to pass through the nose. It takes place at the beginning of a syllable. For example, make, mother and hammer. 

⦁    The /n/ sound is recognized as alveolar nasal sound. While uttering this sound, the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, thus causing the flow of air being redirected from the mouth to exit through the nose. The position of Alveolar ridge is just behind the upper front teeth. It also takes place at the beginning of a syllable. For example, need, know and running. 

⦁    The /ŋ/ sound is known as velar nasal. The back of the tongue is pressed against the velum while producing such kind of sound, causing the flow of air to be transmitted from the mouth to exit through the nose. Velum is also known as soft palate or soft part of the root of the mouth, which is located farthest from the front teeth. 

So far, we have seen English plosive and nasal sounds. Now, let us look at Bengali plosive and nasal sounds. 

Bengali plosives: 

According to Wikipedia, the Bengali meaning of “Plosive consonant” is “স্পর্শ ব্যঞ্জনধ্বনি”. This refers to those consonants in which the articulator touches one of the articulatory organs completely in order to block the vocal tract so that all airflow ceases. 

There are more than 15 consonant sounds in standard colloquial Bengali. According to places of articulation, Bengali consonant sounds can be divided into five different groups- Velar, Alveolo-palatal, Alveolar-retroflex, Dental and Bilabial. 

Depending on the vibration of the vocal cord, Bengali consonant sounds can be divided into two separate groups- voiceless and voiced. 

Voiceless- ক, চ, ট, ত, প 
Voiced- গ, জ~য, ড, দ, ব 

In standard Bengali consonants, we can find a large number of aspirated sounds, which are given below with phonetic symbols- 

Bengali nasal sounds: 

According to Wikipedia, the Bengali meaning of “Nasal consonant” is “নাসিক্য ব্যঞ্জনধ্বনি”. There are also three nasal sounds in standard colloquial Bengali. These sounds are shown with IPA symbols in a below chart: 

Comparison: 
Here, I will make the comparison between plosives and nasal sounds found both in English and Bengali. If we look carefully then we will find some similarities and differences both in Bengali and English sounds. 

The first difference that we come across is the use of place of articulation. English uses three places of articulation while Bengali uses five places of articulation. 

Another difference that is most visible is the position of plosives. It shows where the sound is produced in mouth. In English, consonant sounds are produced from left to right- lips (p, b), alveolar ridge (t, d) and soft palate (k, g). On the other hand, Bengali consonant sounds are produced from right to left- Velar (ক), Alveolo-palatal (Palato-alveolar) (চ), Alveolar-retroflex (ট), Dental (ত) and Bilabial (প). Differences are shown below with two different pictures: 

Post-alveolar consonants: 

Another noticeable similarity between English and Bengali plosives is two post-alveolar consonants. The phonetic symbols for English consonants are /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. They are called affricates because when they are pronounced, the tongue touches alveolar ridge and palate at the same time. In Bengali, similar types of sounds are pronounced as plosives rather than affricates. The symbols are /c/ and /j/. 

Velars: 
We can find velar plosives both in English and Bengali. Velar sounds are produced when the back of the tongue touches the velum, thus creating a stricture, where air is hold and when it is released, it creates a sudden plosion. English has two velar plosives- /k/ and /g/, while Bengali has four plosives- ক (k), খ (kh), গ (g), ঘ (gh). 

Alveolar plosives: 
We can also find similar types of alveolar plosives both in English and Bengali. In English, we find two alveolar plosives- /t/ and /d/. On the other hand, in Bengali, there are four alveolar plosives- /t/ (ট), /th (ঠ)/, /d/ (ড) and /dh/ (ঢ). If we look at English plosives, we can see that /t/ is voiceless while /d/ is voiced. As there is no hissing sound or an extra puff of air, they are called unaspirated. However, /th/ and /dh/ in Bengali plosives are aspirated because there is an extra puff of air for which we can hear an “h” like sound. While we pronounce /t/, /th/, /d/, /dh/ in Bengali language, the tongue is curled back towards palate for which they are called retroflex. 

Bilabial: 
English has two bilabial plosives- /p/ and /b/, while Bengali has four- /p/ (প), /ph/ (ফ), /b/ (ব), and /bh/ (ভ). /p/ is voiceless and /b/ is voiced and both of them are unaspirated. /ph/ and /bh/ are aspirated. These are called labials because they are produced with the touch of two lips or with lip to teeth contact. 

Voicing and aspiration: 
Voicing is regarded as an important feature both in English and Bengali plosives. Plosive consonants can be divided into two groups- voiceless and voiced. Now, let us make a comparison between English and Bengali plosives based on voiceless and voiced. In English, there are three voiceless plosives- /p/, /t/, /k/, but in Bengali, there are five: /k/ (ক), /c/ (চ), /t/ (ট), /t/ (ত), /p/ (প). /b/, /d/, /g/ are English voiced plosives while /g/ (গ), /z/ (জ), /d/ (ড), /d/ (দ), and /b/ (ব) are Bengali voiced plosives. Except for voicing, we can also find the use of aspiration both in English and Bengali language. However, compared to the English language, aspiration plays a more important role in the Bengali language. It is a distinctive feature in this language. Despite having the same strings of sounds, aspiration differentiates meaning in words. Unlike the Bengali language, aspiration is not a distinctive feature in the English language. In Bengali, the members of a four-strong group are identified as voiceless unaspirated, voiced unaspirated, voiceless aspirated and voiced aspirated. 

Nasals:
If we make a comparison between English nasal sounds and Bengali nasal sounds then we will not find any difference. Both English and Bengali have similar nasal consonants. However, for three similar types of Bengali nasal sounds ঞ ~ ণ ~ ন, there is only one English nasal sound which is /n/. 

In this article, I have tried to make compare and contrast between phonemes of two languages- English and Bengali. I have particularly focused on plosives and nasal consonants. I have tried my level best to make a vivid picture of plosive and nasal sounds typically found in English and Bengali languages. As both languages belong to Indo-European Family, they have many similarities and differences in their phonemic systems. 

The relationship between Robinson Crusoe and Friday in Robinson Crusoe

Robinson Crusoe is the best novel of Daniel Defoe. This novel is considered a milestone in the history of English literature. It is one of the first few novels of English literature. The noble does not have too many characters. It tells the story of Robinson Crusoe who lives alone in an island for a long time. The other character that attracts readers’ attention in the novel was Friday. The relationship between Friday and Robinson Crusoe is one of the key aspects of the novel hence making it very important. 

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Robinson Crusoe lived in England. He belonged to a lower race. Friday was brought by his enemies on that island. They would have killed him and ate his flesh. Robinson Crusoe saved Friday from those people. After that, Friday became Crusoe’s loyal servant. Throughout the novel, the master-slave or master-servant relation was dominant. 

Like his contemporaries, Daniel Defoe believed that the Europeans were the superior race. The non-white people do not have the capability to rule themselves. It is the duty of the European to turn these people into slave and civilize them. 

In this novel, we see that Robinson Crusoe civilizes Friday. He tells him that he cannot eat human flesh. Because of Crusoe’s education, Friday converts to Christianity. In the end, we see Friday desperately tries to become a European instead of following his own religion. In this manner, Crusoe turns Friday into a true European servant. However, European society never accepted him as one of their own. 

Robinson Crusoe considered himself as superior. He ordered Friday to address him as master. From the day they met till the end of the novel Friday addressed him as “Master.” Not by any other name. 

In the beginning of the novel, we can see that Robinson Crusoe disobeyed his father and goes out for a voyage at the sea. That voyage destroyed his life. Friday was like a son to Crusoe. On the contrary, Robinson Crusoe was like a father to him. However, Crusoe’s ideal about European supremacy never changed. He always considered himself better than Friday. He could never become a true father but remained Friday’s master all his life. In the end, Crusoe becomes lonely. However, Crusoe was never cruel to Friday. He was very gentle with him and tried to win his heart and mind through his gentleness. 

Robinson Crusoe was written at a time when the English did not see much success in establishing their colonies around the world. However, they competed with other European nations such as Portugal and Spain to establish colonies in Asia and America. Crusoe gives us a glimpse of how the colonies of the English would be in the coming years. 

Moral lessons in Gulliver’s Travels

In Gulliver’s Travels, Jonathan Swift has criticized humanity. From the beginning to the end of the book, there is nothing but criticism of mankind in every possible way. So, it is not unnatural for anyone to conclude that Swift hated humanity and we cannot expect anything good in this book. The book is full of negative criticism. 

 

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Many people consider Gulliver to be a misanthropic character. He went from one place to another and traveled to many parts of the world. But he could not find any goodness among humanity. All he could see was that human beings are greedy for power, ignorant and selfish. Very few people in Jonathan Swift’s time believed that despite all the criticism of humanity Gulliver’s Travels contains some important moral lessons. 

In the first book, Gulliver talks about an important moral lesson through the king of Lilliput. The king said that in England, there is a bad system of only punishment, but there is no reward. By this, Swift advises the readers that we should always encourage and reward good works of good people. Another important moral lesson in Gulliver’s voyage to Lilliput is that we should not fight for small maters but support each other in society. If we do not do it then there will be no peace and stability. 

Jonathan Swift has given a very important moral lesson in book 3. There, Gulliver traveled to a science academy. The government of the country generously provided money to the scientists who were doing research. Gulliver found out that there was not a single research project that would benefit ordinary people in any way. This was the condition of England during Jonathan Swift’s time. The rich and aristocratic people enjoyed all kinds of luxury while poor people suffered. For this reason, people had no interest in government. 

In book 4, Jonathan Swift tried to say that people should not be proud at all but should focus on improving their characteristics and personalities. It was difficult for the people of Jonathan Swift’s time to understand the moral lessons of Gulliver’s Travels. Jonathan Swift was not an ordinary man. He had dreams and visions about the world. He wanted that people should try to improve themselves. He was also frustrated about the fact that the rich and aristocratic people enjoyed all the facilities in this world that money and wealth came from taxes collected from farmers and other ordinary people. The aristocratic people had everything without doing anything. Jonathan Swift wanted this to change. He wanted a better government system for the people.

Why is Shylock angry with Antonio?

The person who is to be blamed for taking revenge in The Merchant of Venice is Shylock, a Jewish money-lender. In this play, he has been portrayed as an antagonist who always seeks an opportunity to teach Antonio a lesson. It is not like that as he is a villain character that is why he wants to punish or defeat the hero. There are some specific reasons for which he has a grudge for Antonio. It should be mentioned here that Antonio himself played a vital role to make Shylock angry that worked as the base of his revenge. 

 

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The personal conflict between Antonio and Shylock is not unknown to anyone. They get the attention of the readers because of their clash. As they belong to two different religions, it sometimes indicates the quarrel of the two religious beliefs. When Bassanio invites him to dine with them, he says in response,

“I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with you, and so following; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you.” 

The above-mentioned quotation gives a vivid description of the conflict between Jews and Christian which is clearly visible throughout the play. It is thought to be one of the reasons to plot revenge. The first reason to hate Antonio is that he is a Christian. He says, “I hate him for he is a Christian.” Antonio also hates him for the same reason. But perhaps the most important reason for which he hates Antonio is that he lends money to needy people without charging any interest from them. This activity brings down the rate of interest in Shylock and his group’s financial dealings in the city of Venice. For this reason, Shylock always looks for a chance to catch him at difficulty so that he can be able to satisfy fully his long-standing grudge which he has against him. 

Theme of money in Sense and Sensibility

Jane Austen is one of the most famous female English novelists of the nineteenth century. She has written a few novels during her lifetime, but all of her novels have been praised and read in universities all around the world. Sense and Sensibility was her first published novel, which was published in 1811. The story revolves around two sisters- Elinor and Marianne Dashwood. The writer of this novel has shown how the lives of these two sisters have been affected because of a lack of money from the beginning to the end. She has successfully satirized the misuse of money of her time. 

Money is one of the few important themes in Jane Austen’s novel Sense and Sensibility. It gets more importance than other themes. Even it influences other themes like love and marriage. By reading the novel, readers can come to know both the positive and negative impact of money on each character. Not only that but also the writer has shown the connection between love, money and marriage in her novel. It seems that the writer’s intention was to show the misuse of money of her time. 

 

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Before discussing the theme of money, readers will have to know the condition of people, especially women in the nineteenth century. Though Queen Victoria was in the power of the English throne, the condition of women did not improve a lot. Most of their status in the society was a little better than a slave. At that time, women did not have any right to own property and after their marriage, their property automatically went to their husbands. For this reason, they had to obey men. Women had no independent means of subsistence. Women were deprived of their rights. They were given less education and could obtain only low-paid jobs. The only purpose of women was to marry and reproduce. When the time of marriage came, women used to give more importance based on money or inheritance they own. These are some of the major characteristics of the 19th century, which give a clear idea about the condition of women in the society. 

By looking at the female characters of the novel Sense and Sensibility, readers will get a clear idea of how love and marriage have been affected by money. The attitudes and opinions about money are very different today than they were in 1811. Love gets less importance when money is in question. 

The novel begins with a little description of the law surrounding inheritance that put the Dashwood women in limbo at the beginning of the novel. John Dashwood, the weak-minded and money-grubbing heir to the Norland estate, breaks his promise that he gave to his father at his death bed. By the influence of his wife Fanny Dashwood, he leaves his mother and sisters with very little money and remains largely indifferent about their welfare. 

This novel is also the best example of how money is connected to social status. If readers look at Mrs. Ferrars, mother of Edward Ferrars, they can see that she wants her eldest son to marry a wealthy and well-connected woman. When she found out that Edward was engaged to Lucy Steele, who is poorer and socially inferior woman to even Elinor, she was so angry that she disinherited her son. 
Elinor and Marianne Dashwood are the central characters of this novel. We can find their different point of view about money when they talk to Edward about it. Elinor believes that love is vital to happiness, and an impoverished marriage will put a strain that would not be there if the two had more money. Marianne has different view about it. She thinks that love is the only aspect of marriage that matters. 

In this novel, we can see that Elinor and Marianne Dashwood are worthy and likable women in every way. They have every good quality that can help them find a good husband. It is sad to see that their good qualities are not considered because the society they live in is primarily interested in money and social connections, neither of which the sisters possess. 

It is important to mention that marriage for money was not only because of greed but also it was partly a matter of practicality. It was a very common matter at that time. Many people of Austen’s time had to sacrifice their love only for money. If we look at the character of Mr. Willoughby then we can see that he gave up his love to marry for wealth. He was in love with Marianne Dashwood, but due to his desire for a lavish lifestyle, he did not continue his relationship with Marianne. He got married to Miss Sophia Grey. 

Lucy Steele has been secretly engaged to Edward Ferrars for four years, but when Edward is disinherited, she marries Edward's young brother Robert. It shows that this sly, selfish and insecure young woman loved Edward’s money and social status not him. Money was important to her not love. 

Colonel Brandon is perhaps different compared to other characters of this novel. This aged bachelor is not concerned about wealth or does not have any desire to improve his status in society. He loved Marianne at first sight and did not think about her social status or whatever she owned as property. Another important thing is that he is only able to marry Marianne because he is rich enough to ignore her lack of fortune. 

Jane Austen used the theme of money in almost all of her novels. It seems that she was obsessed with this thing along with love and marriage. If we look at her another famous novel, Pride and Prejudice, then we can see almost the same thing that how a family suffers due to lack of money. The Bennet family did not have any son who can claim their property. For this reason, they were worried about the lives of their five daughters. Their mother always looked better and rich life partners for them which will make their lives secure. Even, it can be seen that the Bingley family always neglects the Bennet family for their social status. Not only girls but also men wish to marry a woman of high class for financial gain. An example of this is Colonel Fitzwilliam and George Wickham who once tries to elope with Miss Darcy. Marrying a woman of a rich family also helps ensure a connection to a high family. This attitude can be seen in the desire of the Bingley sisters who want their brother married to Miss Darcy. 

Girls without money or property are considered less fortunate. Those who did not have any property or money were considered less attractive as bride. Dowry was a social crime and it was a common practice of Jane Austen’s time. The lives of women were not secure. There was no insurance in the 1800's, and getting married to a rich bride or groom was the only way to secure a future. Divorce was very rare and people regarded marriage for whole life. 

Time has changed a lot. People today give more importance to marriage for love rather than money. In today’s society, wealth does not represent social status as it used to be. Women enjoy a lot of freedom and are considered equal to men. They are capable of doing anything that men can do. 

Actually Jane Austen in her novel wanted to show that good, worthy and sensible characters marry for love, without it they will not marry. She also poked fun at that society by showing how flawed marriages without love, those chosen for gain above love, really were. 

In Jane Austen’s time, money was considered more important than love. Characters often chose wealth over love. They had belief in their mind that money would bring more happiness in their lives. 

Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen

Jane Austen is one of the most popular female authors in the History of English literature. This 19th-century author was famous for her works of romantic fiction, which helped her to get a place among the most widely read writers in English literature. She wrote a few novels, but all of her novels are taught at the university level. Sense and Sensibility is one of the few novels written by her. Because of the popularity of this novel, it has been adapted for film and television many times. 

 

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Her first published work is Sense and Sensibility, which was published in 1811 under the pseudonym 'A Lady'. It was first written in the epistolary form. Then the form was changed to a narrative one. The story takes place in southwest England between 1792 and 1797. By changing the title from Elinor and Marianne to Sense and Sensibility, the author added “philosophical depth” to what began as a sketch of two characters. 

Sense and Sensibility is the story of two sisters- Elinor and Marianne Dashwood who faced many obstacles on their way to true love. The whole story revolves around these two sisters. It shows the suffering of the Dashwood family. After the death of Mr. Dashwood, the property passed to his son John, the child of his first wife, while his second wife Mrs. Dashwood and their daughters- Elinor, Marianne and Margaret, were left with only a small income. Because of these circumstances, Mrs. Dashwood and her three daughters had to shift to a new home, a small cottage on a distant relative’s property. This new place has a very important role in the play because here they experienced love, romance and heartbreak. 

Elinor and Marianne represent two different characteristics. While Elinor represents sense, Marianne represents sensibility. While Elinor conceals her true feelings, Marianne reveals her feelings to everyone. As Elinor is ruled by sense, she does not listen to her emotion or passion. Marianne is just opposite to her. She always listens to her heart. Because of their characteristics, they go through a lot of suffering in their lives and relationship. 

Readers could not stop reading the play until it is finished. This play is full of climax and excitement. They keep their eyes on the central characters to know what would happen to them next. If the readers want to know that if Elinor and Marianne could get married to their beloved, they will have to read the play till the end. The main attraction of this play is these two sisters and the circumstances that happened around them. 

Though the play was written around two hundred years ago, Elinor and Marianne represent most of the girls even in today’s world. The writer may want to give the message with these characters that how girls should behave. So, I think that every girl should read this play very seriously. Though the play does not have many comic elements, I did not feel bored reading it. Its setting and characters were not that much complicated compared to other plays of Jane Austen. Jane Austen could successfully show the dark side of the society. 

It is needless to say that society, culture, social status and relationship between men and women get much importance in Jane Austen’s play, and I really enjoyed reading this. I also enjoyed the wicked character Willoughby, which made the play more thrilling. The play is so engaging that readers would feel relieved from anxiety after reading it.