Avarice is the main theme of Volpone

The main theme of “Volpone,” one of the best plays by Ben Jonson, is avarice. The central character of this play is Volpone, who was a nobleman in seventeenth-century Venice. Though he is quite rich, his greed knows no bounds. Volpone’s story revolves around his amassing more wealth and the kind of complexity that arises from this greed. The main lesson that we get from this play is that greed leads to destruction.

If we examine the characters of this play, we will see that each of the main five characters is extremely greedy. First is the central character, Volpone, who is difficult to label as a hero. His greed knows no bounds, and his religion is not Christianity but rather greed. From beginning to end, he obsesses over wealth and gold incessantly. Gold is significant because, during that time, it held more importance than other forms of wealth. That is why Volpone repeatedly fixates on gold.

In those days, currency was primarily minted using gold, and gold coins were also widely circulated. Gold coins were the most valuable currency, so when referring to gold, it often included gold coins as well. Therefore, when Volpone thinks of acquiring more gold, it implies his desire to accumulate wealth in the form of gold coins.

The next important character after Volpone is Mosca, and Mosca shares the same thoughts as Volpone throughout the day. Mosca does not engage in much labor; rather, his primary task is to survive by depending on Volpone. In a way, Mosca acts as Volpone’s servant, working for him all day long, albeit in a flattering manner. Mosca is not only a companion but also an active accomplice in Volpone’s nefarious deeds. Consequently, Mosca becomes extremely greedy at one point and betrays Volpone.

There are not many female characters in this play. Among the few, Corvino’s wife, Celia, is one. Driven by greed for Volpone’s wealth and ensnared by Mosca’s cunning, Corvino sends his wife to Volpone so that Volpone can enjoy her. Nothing could be more unethical than this, indicating how greedy Corvino was. If we consider Corvino’s greed as bad, then we can think about Corbaccio as well. Corbaccio agreed to disinherit his son Bonario and designate Volpone as the sole heir to his wealth. Certainly, Corbaccio and Corvino should be blamed more than Volpone or Mosca because they abandoned their son and wife, respectively, out of greed. Family is certainly important and should be the most important, but we learn from Volpone that people, out of greed, do not hesitate to sacrifice their own family or even the dignity of their wives.

As a result, each character in this play suffers. Volpone becomes almost mad by the end when he discovers that his favorite servant, Mosca, has been cheating on him. Mosca nearly succeeds in deceiving Volpone, but he ultimately loses in court. Corbaccio and Corvino do not inherit Volpone’s wealth; instead, their relationships with their families deteriorate. The two virtuous characters, Celia and Bonario, are proven innocent in court.

Ben Jonson tried to beautifully convey that avarice is a very bad thing. However, at the same time, we have to keep in mind that if people do not have morality in society, then it brings danger to society. Greed may lead to temporary gains, but it is not sustainable in the long run. 

Sydney Carton is a sacrificing hero

Who is Sydney Carton?

Sydney Carton is one of the most important characters in the novel, A Tale of Two Cities, written by Charles Dickens. He is portrayed as an alcoholic and indifferent attorney who leads a miserable life, feeling hopeless. However, he is compared to a jackal for his cleverness. He closely resembles Darnay.

What does he sacrifice?

Sydney Carton makes the most important sacrifice in this novel. His sacrifice greatly impacts the lives of Charles Darnay, Lucie Manette, and their family. He sacrifices his life to save the husband of the woman he adores. By sacrificing his life, he fulfills his promise to Lucie Manette that he will sacrifice his life for her or for someone dear to her. He was willing to die for Lucie due to his deep love for her, but his motivation goes beyond simple affection. Towards the end of the novel, Sydney realizes that he wants to do something noble with his life. That is why he does something incredibly selfless, something few people could even imagine accomplishing in their dreams.

When Darnay was imprisoned in France, Sydney went to France and rescued him from prison by switching places with him just before Darnay was scheduled for execution.

Why is it important?

The sacrifice of Sydney Carton is highly significant in this novel, arguably receiving more importance than the sacrifices of other characters. Firstly, he saves Darnay’s life by sacrificing his own, acting as a rescuer. He frees Darnay, Lucie, and Dr. Manette from prison. As he heads towards the guillotine, Darnay and his family are on their way to England, safe thanks to Carton’s sacrifice.

Another important reason is that he kept his promise that he gave to Lucie Manette. He promised her that one day he would sacrifice himself for the person whom Lucie loved. By doing so, he has chosen his destiny. It shows his selfless love for Lucie. It is also important because we know that very few people in the world are capable of doing the thing that Sydney has done.

Different Sydney from first and last:

At the beginning of the novel, Sydney Carton was portrayed as an indifferent person who lacked any prospects in life and did not seem to pursue anything or anyone. He was careless. However, he is deeply passionate about Lucie. His feelings for her transform him into a man of profound merit. He loves Lucie so much that he does not hesitate to sacrifice his life for her. Despite his many bad habits, including drugs and alcohol, he captures the readers’ attention with his selfless love for Lucie.

Sydney is hero?

Sydney Carton is not the main hero of this novel. Instead, he is considered a sacrificial hero for his selflessness. He sacrifices himself for the benefit of others, which is undoubtedly a heroic deed. We cannot label him a hero based solely on his characteristics. He closely resembles Darnay in physical appearance, but they are two distinct individuals. However, he is not a hero in the traditional sense.

Is Sydney success or failure?

Sydney fails as a traditional hero, but by the end of the novel, he achieves a form of immortality and garners more attention than the main hero. Readers sympathize with him, elevating him beyond mere heroism. Through this novel, Dickens illustrates that redemption is always possible. For much of the story, Sydney appears to be a failure: he lacks a wife, family, or friends and shows little dedication to his job or career.

Love and sacrifice in A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

Charles Darnay-Lucie Manette relation:

Charles Darnay and Lucie Manette are two important characters in this novel. They are husband and wife. In this novel, we can see that they love each other very much. Darnay belongs to an aristocratic family in France, and he knows that Lucie is an ordinary girl. Despite this fact, he loves Lucie dearly. Both Lucie and Darnay are faithful to each other. When Darnay was imprisoned in France, Lucie went to France with her young daughter to save her husband’s life. She did not even think about her safety.

Selfless Love:

Sydney Carton represents selfless love. Though he knows that Lucie loves someone else, and in the religious context, it is not ethical, he is deeply in love with her. Throughout the novel, we find him not to be a good person like Darnay. Even he has all these bad habits. However, he is so deeply in love with Lucie that he is ready to sacrifice his life for her or anyone dear to her just to keep her happy. At the end of the novel, he fulfills his promise, which is why he is called the sacrificing hero.

Sacrifice:

Sacrifice is the most important theme of this novel. From the beginning to the end, we encounter many examples of sacrifice. Most of the characters in this novel make sacrifices. Dr. Manette is first seen sacrificing his life, imprisoned for eighteen years in the Bastille without any reason. Because of his long imprisonment, he becomes mentally ill. Throughout his life, he curses the family for whom he was imprisoned. On the morning of his daughter’s marriage, he learns of Charles Darnay’s true identity and is shocked. However, he agrees to the marriage, thinking of his daughter’s happiness.

Sydney Carton is the quintessential example of the theme of sacrifice. He sacrifices his life to ensure Lucie’s happiness. Through this ultimate sacrifice, he saves Lucie, Charles, and their family. By fulfilling his promise to sacrifice his life for the one Lucie loves, he demonstrates profound selflessness and devotion.

Charles Darnay also makes sacrifices, relinquishing his family, property, and various other privileges to lead a life free of guilt associated with the actions of his ancestors. He chooses to leave his homeland, France, in pursuit of a simpler existence. His decision reflects a commitment to distancing himself from the injustices perpetuated by his family’s past behavior.

The French Revolution plays a crucial role in this novel. It was a conflict between the aristocratic and peasant classes, with the lower class fighting for their rights and liberation from the oppression of the upper class. Throughout the revolution, ordinary French citizens sacrificed their lives in pursuit of freedom from tyranny and inequality. 

Gangaridai Kingdom: The only kingdom that Alexander feared

Gangaridai were an ethnic group of ancient Bengal during the first and second centuries BCE. We can come to know about this ethnic group from the writings of Greek and Latin authors. Various writers have referred to this ethic group using different spellings, such as Gangaridae, Gangariridum, and Gangarides.

In 327 BCE, Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and marched towards India. Then, in 326 BCE, he crossed the Indus River and entered Taxila. Greek historians who came to India during the time of Alexander mentioned a powerful king named Gangaridai. The descriptions of this ethnic group found in Greek and Latin writings are as follows:

·         “The Gangaridai kingdom boasted a formidable army of elephants. Due to this force, the kingdom was never defeated by a foreign power, leaving other kingdoms intimidated by the sheer number and strength of their elephant forces. The width of the last part of the Ganges is eight miles, and at its narrowest point, it reaches a depth of about 100 feet. The inhabitants of these distant regions are known as the Gangaridai. Their king maintains a prepared army of 1,000 cavalry, 700 elephants, and 60,000 foot soldiers. During the reign of Seleucus, Alexander’s commander and friend, Megasthenes (350–290 BCE) came to India as a Greek ambassador.”

·         “The Gangaridai are the most formidable of all Indian races. After coming to know about the Gangaridai king’s army of 4,000 elephants, well-equipped and prepared for battle, Alexander dared not engage in warfare against him.” - Diodorus (90–30 BCE)

·         “The Ganges River flows from north to south, and the sea meets at the eastern border of the Gangaridai kingdom.” – Megasthenes

·         “The Gangaridai kingdom encompasses the entire region at the mouth of the Ganges River.” - Ptolemy

·         “The last part of the Ganges River has flown through the Gangaridai kingdom.” - Pliny 

According to Ptolemy’s writing, we can come to know the location of Gangaridai. The Gangaridai occupied almost the entire area adjacent to the five mouths of the Ganges. “Gange” was its capital. The four longitudinal degrees he described included the region from the westernmost to the easternmost mouth of the Ganges River, along the coast of the Bay of Bengal. Practically, this means that ‘Gangaridai’ extended from the westernmost to the easternmost mouth of the Ganges River near the Bay of Bengal. It is observed that the longitudinal degree between the mouths of the Bhagirathi (near Tamluk) and Padma Rivers (near Chattogram) is slightly more than 35 degrees. Therefore, according to Ptolemy’s information, Gangaridai can be identified in the regions between the two main branches of the Ganges in present-day West Bengal and Bangladesh.

A Greek navigator in his book, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, mentioned the Gange country located east of the coast of Odisha, adjacent to the Bay of Bengal. According to him, Gange was a commercial city named after the river.

The word ‘Gangaridai’ is derived from ‘Gangarid.’ It is believed that ‘Gangarid’ is the Greek form of the Indian word ‘Gangahrd,’ meaning the land through which the Ganges flows. According to the historian Atul Sur, the word ‘Gangarida’ may have originated from ‘Gangarid,’ then ‘Gangaradhi,’ and from there, the word ‘Radha’ may have emerged. Renowned historian Niharranjan Ray, in his book “Bangalir Itihas: Adiparba” (বাঙালির ইতিহাস: আদি পর্ব), wrote, “There is no doubt that the Gangaridai are the inhabitants of the Gangetic province because Greek and Latin writers agree on this matter.” Hemchandra Rai Chaudhary, by conducting a comparative and comprehensive discussion of the relevant opinions of authors such as Diodorus, Curtis, Plutarch, Solinus, Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo, etc., has shown that Gangaridai was located on the eastern bank of the Ganges-Bhagirathi River and extended from there.”

According to Pliny, “The last part of the Ganges River flows through the Gangaridai kingdom. The inhabitants of the southern part of the Ganges had a black and tanned complexion, but they were not as black as the Ethiopians.” From this description, it can be inferred that they were a mixed race of Negrito, Proto-Australoid, and Dravidian ethnic groups.

Relationship between Edward and Elinor in Sense and Sensibility

In “Sense and Sensibility,” we can see the life story of two sisters, who are Elinor and Marianne. This novel does not have a hero in the true sense. If we have to consider anyone as a hero, then the name that should come to readers’ minds first is Edward Ferrars. Elinor and Edward love each other, and eventually, they get married. They suffer a lot in this love and have to overcome many obstacles. At one point, it even seemed that they would not marry each other and that there would be no union between them. However, fate supported them in the end, and they loved each other very much. Finally, they get the result of their love, and they get married.

First of all, it is necessary to understand how they initially met. Fanny Dashwood was the wife of Elinor’s stepbrother, and Fanny’s brother was Edward. Fanny and her mother were quite dominating, and they used to exert pressure on Edward from an early age. Edward did something foolish and secretly became engaged to Lucy without informing anyone. Lucy was completely opposite to Edward in terms of personality, and she did not have strong feelings for Edward. When Edward visited Elinor’s house, which was actually inherited by his stepbrother, John, after the death of her father, he became acquainted with Elinor, and from the beginning, Edward and Elinor started to like each other. However, their mutual affection remained somewhat concealed, which led to many problems for them. Edward was honest in his personal life, so he wanted to confide in Elinor about his troubled situation, but he had to leave suddenly before he could do so. Edward’s sudden departure severed their contact and relationship, as he knew in his heart that it would not be possible for him to marry Elinor. Despite loving Elinor deeply, Edward, being an honest man, refrained from allowing their relationship to progress further. On the other hand, although Elinor loved Edward with all her heart, she, being somewhat reserved, did not openly reveal her suffering to anyone. While her mother and sister understood, Elinor still kept her feelings hidden.

Edward and Elinor endured suffering for an extended period of time. Elinor’s anguish stemmed from her lack of knowledge of the truth, and it intensified when she eventually discovered it. Conversely, Edward’s sorrow deepened as he realized Elinor was a far superior person compared to Lucie. Elinor possessed all the qualities that Lucie lacked. Therefore, Edward’s anguish heightened significantly, pondering over encountering such a wonderful girl yet being unable to marry her.

However, being a good person, Edward attempted to honor his promise. When his mother learned of his intention to marry Lucie, she became furious and disinherited him, leaving everything to his younger brother. At that moment, Lucie realized that Edward had little and that his future prospects were bleak. Consequently, Lucie decided to sever all ties with Edward and elope with his younger brother, marrying him instead.

When Edward was going through all this turmoil, Elinor was unaware of most of it. She only heard rumors that Edward had married Lucie, but in reality, it had not occurred. Elinor lost all hope, and her life became filled with suffering. However, luck was on her side, and later, she learned directly from Edward that he did not actually marry.

They got married, and Elinor’s entire family joyfully approved of their union. Initially, Edward’s mother objected to the marriage, but eventually, she came around and accepted it. They were overjoyed, emerging as the most ideal couple in the novel.

If we examine the relationship between Edward and Elinor, we can observe that both of them were good people, but luck did not favor them. Edward faced considerable misfortune from the start. His circumstances were challenging, and when he became secretly engaged at the age of 18–19, he foolishly became infatuated with a girl who was unsuitable for him in every way. He became fixated on her, only to later realize that she was not the right match for him. When he recognized this and encountered Elinor, he should have promptly ended the engagement with Lucie, especially since it was kept secret and he had minimal communication with her. However, by not doing so, the situation became even more complicated. On the other hand, Elinor was reserved by nature. She should have stepped forward and stood by Edward, encouraging him not to marry Lucie. Elinor should have taken this step because she understood that Lucie was not a suitable match for Edward and that he would not find happiness with her. Therefore, she should have made an effort to intervene.

No matter what happened, they found happiness in the end, which is the best outcome. Luck played a role in this, and simultaneously, Jane Austen wanted to illustrate that they were well-suited for each other.

Autobiographical elements in the poems of William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth is the father of the Romantic Movement in English literature. He created a new style of poetry, and in that poetry, we can find not only a new style in the topic but also in the language. That is why he is immortal in the history of English literature, and the change he brought gave a lot of focus to the subject of poetry. Until him, most poets focused on urban or aristocratic people for their themes. If we study English literature up to Wordsworth, we will find that the subject matter always revolves around high or rich people and many poets only wrote about their beloved. It was Wordsworth who revolutionized the theme of poetry by emphasizing that the theme should be an ordinary person.

That is why, in his poems, we can find autobiographical elements. He consistently wrote about his own life and ideas. Sometimes, he wrote about his sister; other times, he delved into stories about his daughter or the people he encountered during his life. Occasionally, he even wrote about unknown individuals he observed while traveling to different places. Thus, many of his poems contain autobiographical elements. He even wrote about his own biography in a poem called ‘The Prelude.’ He put into practice the idea that poetry’s subjects should be ordinary people. During his time, he was a very ordinary person, initially experiencing little success and enduring significant poverty in the early part of his life. It took time for him to achieve any form of success as a poet.

“Tintern Abbey” is a poem in which Wordsworth writes about a place he visited five years ago and revisited. Consequently, it contains autobiographical elements as he reflects on a place directly associated with him. However, beyond that, the poem addressed his sister, Dorothy Wordsworth. By praising Dorothy, the poem is not merely biographical but rather one with autobiographical elements. Dorothy, who was exceptionally close to Wordsworth, dedicated her entire life to supporting him as a poet. She cared for Wordsworth in the best possible way, and with her support, he achieved success as a poet. Few poets experienced such affection and support from their siblings, making Wordsworth fortunate in this regard. He fondly remembered her in “Tintern Abbey.”

“Surprised by Joy” is another poem that contains autobiographical elements. Wordsworth reflects on the loss of his daughter, who passed away at the age of three. Initially addressing the poem to his daughter, he later realizes the child is in the grave. The profound impact of this loss deeply affected Wordsworth, prompting him to create a poignant poem in remembrance of his beloved daughter.

“It is a Beauteous Evening, Calm and Free” is another poem with autobiographical elements. Wordsworth, during his visit to France, developed a deep affection for a woman named Annette Vallon. Although she was not married to Wordsworth, Annette gave birth to their child. In this poem, Wordsworth recounts moments spent with the woman and the child as they walked beside the sea. The poem directly reflects a chapter in Wordsworth’s life, expressing his love and emotions towards the child born from this union. During this period, Wordsworth faced challenges in maintaining a connection with Annette due to various factors. Firstly, being from England, Wordsworth encountered difficulties as Annette resided in France. Additionally, the political tension between the two countries and religious differences, with Wordsworth being Protestant and Annette being Catholic, added further complexities to their relationship.

As I mentioned earlier, Wordsworth was notably committed to portraying the lives of ordinary people in his poetry. Examining the three poems discussed above, we observe his inclusion of his sister, one daughter, and another child born out of wedlock. Consequently, Wordsworth has succeeded remarkably in encapsulating his own life within these poems. 

Religious ideas of William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth is considered to be among the top three poets in English literature, along with John Milton and William Shakespeare. Unlike Shakespeare and Milton, who did not change English poetry in the way that Wordsworth did, he attempted to bring about significant changes and was successful in doing so. In terms of religion, Wordsworth also introduced new ideas in poetry. Thus, Wordsworth emerges as a pioneering figure who had a profound influence on English literature.

Religion has always been an important topic in English poetry. It is evident that most poets have explored this theme in their works, a natural occurrence, as literature across various cultures often includes numerous poems on this subject. Upon examining the major poets in English literature, it becomes apparent that almost all of them wrote poems dedicated to God and Jesus Christ.

In fact, before Wordsworth, the topics of poems were often limited to kings, powerful and aristocratic people, gods, and religion. Wordsworth wanted to change this style, and he proposed that poets should focus on writing poetry about the lives and activities of ordinary people. Thus, he shifted the focus of poetry away from religion. However, Wordsworth was not an atheist, nor did he lack belief in religion. He was born a Protestant Christian, but it is not evident that he was a strong believer or supporter of Christianity. Instead, he was interested in mysticism. In “Tintern Abbey,” we find an example of mysticism, where, according to this philosophy, people can connect with God through meditation. Mystics are not inclined to follow religious rituals. In the Middle East and South Asia, Sufis are considered mystics. In the “Tintern Abbey” poem, Wordsworth expresses his love for God, but he is not talking about any ritual. Instead, he adopts a meditative mood, seeking to touch the soul of God.

Wordsworth was also deeply drawn to Pantheism, an ideology that hypothesizes the omnipresence of God, suggesting that divinity is inherent in everything. According to this perspective, everything is considered a part of God, including animals and trees. The concept further asserts that there is a divine essence, or God’s soul, within all things. Wordsworth prominently showcased Pantheistic ideas in “Tintern Abbey.”

Mysticism and pantheism are not highly embraced within traditional Christian beliefs. From a conventional standpoint, Wordsworth might not be considered a strictly religious person. However, in the poem “Tintern Abbey,” Wordsworth articulates his religious perspectives, which deviate from the norms of traditional beliefs. His ideas about religion appear distinct from those of ordinary individuals. It is worth noting that while mysticism and pantheism may not align with mainstream Christian views, there are indeed many people who hold an affinity for both of these concepts.

Now, turning to the poem “It is a beauteous evening, calm and free,” Wordsworth once again diverged from traditional Christian ideas. Primarily, the poem was composed for his illegitimate daughter, who resided in France. Despite this unconventional context, he incorporated religious symbols such as the temple and referenced figures like Prophet Abraham and Prophet Sulaiman. In doing so, he delved into discussions about God, revealing a continuation of his advocacy for pantheism and mysticism. Aware that the conventional Christian viewpoint might not approve of his romantic involvement with the child’s mother, Wordsworth asserts that God transcends such judgments. As he stands by the sea, he perceives the voice of God within him, connecting this divine presence with his childhood experiences alongside the Prophet Abraham. Through these elements, Wordsworth conveys the idea that his child transcends religious norms, embodying innocence and purity.

Wordsworth had a deep influence on many people and is considered a modern poet. In our contemporary age, it can be observed that religion is losing its value in most countries. People are perhaps moving away from rituals. Wordsworth may have understood this shift and wanted to illustrate the fundamental essence of God. He believed that God is above religion and can be accessed through meditation rather than performing specific rituals.