Self-Reliance by Ralph Waldo Emerson

Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Self-Reliance was published in 1841. We all know that America achieved its independence in 1776. This essay was published a few decades after independence and it contains many valuable matters. The main message of the essay is that instead of blindly following the social norms and customs, one should look into his or her inner-self and accept things by judging them. In this regard, non-conformity to social rules is a very important matter. One should never follow things blindly. He should think and then accept. 

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In fact, there was a crisis in Emerson’s life. A few days before publishing this essay, he changed his job and he was in a conflict with Harvard University. His thoughts were very much advanced compared to his age. He always liked to explore new possibilities. This resulted in a frequent conflict between him and other intellectuals. Such conflict was more common in his professional life. Through this essay, Emerson is trying to console himself and improve his self-confidence at the same time. In this essay, he was trying to say that his path was the ideal path. He wanted to say it because he believed in it.

At the same time, we should remember another thing. Though Americans gained freedom, American society and culture were highly influenced by the British. Many people used to think that everything about Britain was good and they should follow the British in the fields of education and culture. Not only British, Americans thought very highly of Europe and in his essay, Emerson told the readers to change their minds. He believed that Americans should build their country in their own way and create their own culture and literature. Hence, “Self-Reliance” has great significance in American literature.

In one way, he tried to infuse new thoughts in American literature. On the other hand, he tried to tell the future writers to look into their own thoughts and ideas instead of following European authors. If they follow European authors, they will create poor quality literature.

Emerson believed that without non-conformity human soul cannot flourish. If human beings blindly follow society, society will not change, and the world will become stagnant. This is not good for the growth of human civilization. Human civilization thrived by new inventions and discoveries. Hence, Emerson believed that people should value non-conformity.

In this essay, Emerson provided a very interesting example. He said that Shakespeare did not study with any teacher but one would not create literary works better than Shakespeare by reading all his works. In order to become Shakespeare, one should first look into his inner-self and give priority to his or her thoughts and ideas. Non-conformists look for truth by going against social norms and customs.

Emerson provided another example. A person who studied in the best universities in the USA but failed to secure any job is considered a failure to society. On the contrary, a poorly literate person by dint of his hard work and determination became successful and found a town will be respected by the society. What Emerson tried to say that a non-conformist, who works hard tries to create something new in society, may not be appreciated initially but would gain respect in the future. Human history is filled with such examples.

We should not forget that social norms and customs change after a few days. What is good today would not remain good forever. When Emerson wrote this essay, slavery was common in the USA, but it was banned after twenty-five years. In the present-day USA, none could think of keeping slaves. Hence we should not follow all the social norms and customs blindly. It is not a bad thing to become a non-conformist.

Reading this essay, one should not think that non-conformist means anti-religion. However, it is not true. In this essay, Emerson gave a new explanation of religion. He believes that God has given a lot of power to humans and gave them freedom. One should use his power to do better things. In this regard, Emerson’s essay is about non-conformist but not anti-religious. Moreover, Emerson did not try to become an atheist. He talked about the power of the human soul, which all the religion provides. It will be a mistake if we compare Emerson’s non-conformity with anarchism or destructiveness. He tried to show the positive side of non-conformity. Instead of blindly following social norms and customs, one should look for truth by searching into his soul. This idea may not seem very new in this age, but it was a very radical idea at that time. Currently, we see that America is trying hard to provide more personal freedom to its citizens. It means, by remaining within the limits of the law, people can do anything. There was a time in our country when the son of a farmer would become a farmer, but things are not the same anymore. If people had observed such customs till today, many students who are now studying in several private universities would not have studied.

Linguistic situation in Bangladesh

How many languages do you think Bangladesh has? To answer this question, many people without any thought will say that Bangladesh is a monolingual country. According to them, people living in this country speak in one language only. However, that is a completely wrong answer. Bengali as a first language or mother tongue takes the dominant position inside the country, but there are other languages too that are mainly spoken by indigenous people living in mountainous areas. 

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In Bangladesh, there are about two million indigenous people who are divided into 50 indigenous communities. These indigenous communities speak in 30 ethnic-languages, which belong to four language families. Of them, 12-18 ethnic-languages are facing a serious threat of being extinct for not having an adequate number of speakers. As a result, very few people practice these languages. Below is a list of indigenous languages that are the member of four language families.

• Austro-Asiatic: Santal, Mundari and Khashi.
• Sino-Tibetan: Garo, Kokborok and Marma.
• Dravidian: Kurux and Sauria Paharia.
• Indo-Aryan: Bengali, Chakma, Hajong, Tanchangya and Urdu.

Not all indigenous languages have their own alphabets or written forms. In this case, Chakma, Marma, Mru and Meitei are fortunate enough because these four languages have their own scripts. Apart from these, there is another indigenous language named Sadri, which is spoken by Telegu, Santhali, Nepali, Rai and other indigenous communities as a lingua franca in the Sylhet tea garden area. This language is made up of alphabets taking from Hindi, Bengali, Urdu and other languages. When it comes to taking formal education, these language speakers have to depend on Bengali. Major indigenous languages dominate small languages. It is sad but true that authorities related to this sector have not taken any initiative to preserve these languages.

Apart from the above-stated indigenous languages, there are English, Arabic, Persian, Urdu and several other languages mainly spoken by the settlers coming from India, Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan etc.

Bengali language: The state language

In Bangladesh, 98% of people speak in Bengali fluently. The official language of Bangladesh is Standard Bengali (চলিত বা শুদ্ধ ভাষা). Most of the Bangladeshis speak in Standard Bengali or Bengali dialects as their first language. Therefore, it serves as the lingua franca of the nation. In Bangladesh, there are 16 dialects or regional varieties of Bengali language- Barishal, Bogura, Chattogram, Cumilla, Dhaka, Dinajpur, Faridpur, Jashore, Khulna, Kushtia, Mymensingh, Noakhali, Pabna, Rajshahi, Rangpur and Sylhet. Some of these dialects are so hard that the speakers of other regional varieties cannot understand these properly. For this reason, these dialects are treated as separate languages.

Bengali language is not only spoken in Bangladesh. A sizeable population in India, especially the inhabitants of West Bengal, Tripura, Assam and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, use Bengali as the first official language. The Indian state of Jharkhand has recognized Bengali as the second official language. Therefore, it has got the status as one of the 22 official languages of India. As a first language or second language, it is spoken by 265 million people across the world, thus making it the seventh most spoken language in the world.

Bengali language belongs to the Indo-Aryan language family spoken in the Indian sub-continent. It has been originated from Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit. This language has its own script known as Eastern Nagari script. Some notable litterateurs in Bengali literature are Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Jibanananda Das etc. In 1913, Rabindranath Tagore became the first Asian Nobel laureate after getting Nobel Prize for his book Gitanjali in Literature. On November 17, 1999, UNESCO has recognized February 21, Bengali Language Martyr Day, as International Mother Language Day.

If we look at the constitution of Bangladesh, we can see that Bengali is the only national and official language of this country. It is also the state language of this country. Despite using English in all sectors of this country, it has not even been recognized as the second language of Bangladesh. However, for its widespread use, it can be regarded as the co-official language of Bangladesh. In our country, the aristocratic society used to communicate in English as part of fashion or prestige. Nowadays, people of all classes use English more or less.

Washington Irving as a Romantic writer

Washington Irving was born in 1783, seven years after the independence of the U.S. Irving started his career as a writer at a time when colonialism was abolished in America, and it was a free country. Yet, he was well-informed about European writers and poets. His popularity was so much that even many great European authors knew about him. Irving was one of the most celebrated writers in his lifetime. 

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If we look at the 18th century English literature, we will see that the “Romantic Era” started with the publishing of Lyrical Ballads. Also, contemporary European literary society was observing the Romantic movement. Despite the deteriorating political relationship between the U.K and the U.S., the exchange of literary ideas did not stop. American literature of that era was very much different from that of England, and Washington Irving can be credited for this. He was the first American writer who solely earned living from writing. His books were very popular and sold hundreds of copies. He became a rich man in his lifetime. He has a great influence on American literature as well.

Nature has a major role in the Romantic movement. Almost all the major Romantic poets, such as Wordsworth and Coleridge, had been highly influenced by nature. According to Wordsworth, nature is a living organism and has a great influence on human beings. Coleridge also observed a different side of nature. They talked about nature in their poems again and again. 

If we look at the short story Rip Van Winkle, we will see that nature has a major presence in this story. First, Rip Van Winkle lived in a village that had no modern technology. People used to cultivate, and there were hills and forests. Hence, Rip Van Winkle shared a deep relationship with nature. At night, when he went to sleep, he fell asleep by the side of the hills. So, the entire setting was a natural setting, and he spent twenty years in this natural setting. His companion was not any human but a dog. So, we see a major presence and influence of nature in this story.

Another major feature of the Romantic movement was- poets like Wordsworth and Coleridge were heavily influenced by the French Revolution. On the contrary, Washington Irving was influenced by the American Revolution, which instilled Idealism in him. Though Rip Van Winkle is a simple story, it has an important underlying meaning. When Rip Van Winkle fell asleep, America was under British rule and upon waking up from his sleep, he sees an independent America. It shows that there is no king rather American people will elect their own representatives. This idea had great significance. Through this story, Irving indirectly showed that democracy is better than king’s rule. The USA was the first country in the world to establish democracy and Irving represented that democracy in a very beautiful manner. He woke up from his sleep after twenty years and upon returning to his village he found out that the village had developed a lot. This change came due to democracy. English poets and authors could not clearly say anything about democracy because England was ruled by the kings. On the contrary, there was democracy in America. So, Irving could represent democracy in such a beautiful manner in his story. 

American literature gained momentum through Washington Irving and started the Golden Age of American literature. The Romantic ideals preached by him were different from those of England. Along with nature, he included politics, which poets like Wordsworth or Coleridge could not do.

Analyze the trial scene in England in A Tale of Two Cities

Trial scenes play a very important role in the novel named A Tale of Two Cities. There are three trial scenes throughout this novel. The first trial scene takes place in England.

The first trial scene takes place at the Old Bailey, the well-known law court situated very close to Newdigate Prison in London. In the novel, we can see that a huge number of people gathered in the court to watch the trial. The people who gathered in the court are expecting that the prisoner will be found guilty, sentenced to death, and executed. Old Bailey court is one of the three major sites that give the reader a very good picture of the city of London. The writer says,  

“A whole crowd of drunken ruffians gathers to see the "condemned" man sentenced to death.”

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The above-mentioned quotation shows that there is not much difference between Londoners and Parisians. The court also represents the British government. It is sad to see that not too many laws are followed and not that much justice is served. To give further description of the court, we can mention the following lines,

“The court is nothing more that a hall of mirrors. In fact, it’s literally a hall of mirrors: they hang big mirrors in front of the accused so the folks in the audience can watch him squirm.”

The trial scene starts with Attorney General reading a statement concerning the charges of treason. In his statement, he has accused Charles Darnay of treasonable activities. He has also said that the accused deserves death as a punishment. Mr. Stryver is Darnay’s lawyer. He is talking in favor of his client and is trying to make the prosecutor’s main witnesses, John Barsad and Roger Cly, wrong. It is clear that Judge and Jury have already assumed Darnay as guilty.

Dickens gets a pretty clear idea about how cheap the court system is when Charles Darnay gets charged with treason. He has been mentioned guilty by everyone even before he goes to trial. As he has been assumed guilty by judge and jury, the lawyers are spending time listening to their own voices.

John Barsad is the first witness who has been examined by the prosecution. He has been described as a noble patriot by the prosecutor. He has provided evidence that showed that the accused Charles Darnay is involved in treacherous activities. Another witness is Roger Cly, who is the servant of Darnay. These two witnesses seem untrustworthy, but their testimony is believed. However, at the end of the trial scene in England, these two witnesses were shown just the opposite. Barsad was shown as one of the greatest scoundrels and traitors. He was a hired spy. The second prosecution witness Roger Cly was Barsad’s friend and partner, and that the whole evidence had been produced against the accused.

Mr. Jarvis Lorry, an employee of Tellson’s Bank in London, was another important witness of this trial. He was one of the passengers in the mail-coach while traveling from London to Dover. He was asked the question if he had seen the accused on a certain Friday night in November 1774 during his journey to Dover by the mail-coach. In answer to this question, he said that it was impossible for him to identify the accused because he and the other two passengers in the coach had been wrapped to their ears in their cloaks on account of the intense cold. He was again asked if he had seen the accused anywhere before now. He replied that he had seen him on the boat while returning from France in the same month and year.

Mr. Jarvis Lorry is not an important character in this novel. But in the first trial in England, he is considered to be one of the most important characters. He was present at the court as a representative of Tellson’s Bank of which Charles Darnay had been a client.

One of the most important characters of this trial scene is Charles Darnay. He is about twenty-five years old, good-looking, and dressed in black. He is the prisoner. He is on trial on a charge of treason against England. However, he has defended himself against the charge saying that he is not guilty.

He has been suspected of giving information about the British troops in the American War of Independence to the French who were the American’s allies.

This charge of treason has clearly shown the bitter relation between England and France. These two countries are arch enemies and till now they do not have a very good relation. Another important thing that we can find in this trial scene is that France was helping America in its independence war against England. For this reason, England suspected Darnay as a French spy. 

There is a big reason behind this charge. Charles Darnay was a Frenchman and his frequent traveling from London to Paris may raise the question of his activity. Because of his frequent journey from London to Paris, the prosecutor might have suspected him of providing secret information to the French authorities.

Another two important characters who were present in the courtroom were Dr. Manette and his daughter, Miss Lucie Manette. They had been summoned by the court as witnesses against the accused. It should be mentioned here that both father and daughter were accompanied by Darnay when they were returning from France to England on the same ship. When Lucie was called to be examined, she told the court that she had seen the prisoner on the boat. She also told the court how she and her sick father were helped by him during their voyage. She also showed sympathy towards the prisoner.

The trial scene in England is also important for comic elements. Lucie told the court about the conversation between her and Darnay. Comic elements can be found in their conversation. When they were talking to each other during their voyage, Darnay jokingly made a remark that George Washington would someday be as famous as George III. No doubt, it made the readers laugh. However, this unintentional statement given by Lucie turned the court against Darnay. This statement also made the crowd angry. The crowd shouted with anger. However, Dr. Manette could not give any information about the accused as because of his illness he could not remember anything.

Sydney Carton, the assistant of the lawyer, has played a very important role in the trial scene. Due to his right decision at the right moment, the accused was acquitted from the charge of treason. Darnay is saved because of the intelligence of Sidney Carton. He is also an interesting character. Most of the time in the court, he was seen spending time looking at the ceiling of the court. He is the sacrificing hero of this novel.

When Mr. Stryver was in the middle of cross-examining another witness, Sydney Carton passed him a note. After reading the note, Stryver dramatically called attention to the resemblance between the accused and his assistant. This similarity caused great confusion for the witnesses. This confusion implied that the witness could have been mistaken about the identity of the man whom he had seen in the coffee-room of a hotel. The defense attorney, Mr. Stryver, stated that Darnay is an innocent victim whose confidential family affairs caused him to travel between Paris and London. The jury returns a verdict of Innocence to the judge. As the guilt against the accused had not been proved, he was acquitted.

The acquittal disappointed the crowd gathered in the court, but it came as a great relief not only to the accused and his counsel but also to Dr. Manette and his daughter, Lucie Manette. Charles Darnay’s well-wishers now gathered around him to congratulate him on his escape from death.

Surely, Charles Darnay got a new life. If he was proved guilty then he would have been sentenced to death. So, in the trial scene, we see him coming back to new life.

The readers were excited until they came to know what had happened to the fate of Darnay. When they saw that Darnay was acquitted from the charge of treason, they felt happy and relieved. People who gathered in the court were yelling for his blood. Dickens narrates the scene as ‘a cloud of great blue flies that you would find hovering over a dead body’.

Trial scene in England is important in many ways. In this scene, we can find most of the important characters of the novel. We can find the feelings of Lucie for Darnay. This young lady feels sympathetic for him. It can be said that the relationship between Lucie and Darnay started from there. We also can find the feelings of Sidney Carton for Lucie. Sidney felt love for Lucie though she got married to another man.

Two important male characters of this novel are Charles Darnay and Sidney Carton. They have very close resemblance in their looking, and due to their close resemblance, the witness has become somewhat confused and he got released from the charge. However, despite their similar appearance, they were different in their attitudes. Their opposite attitudes made them two different persons.

Charles Dickens writes about duality using the characters of Sidney Carton and Charles Darnay. Apart from their physical similarities, they have contrasting manners and habits. Carton is bad-mannered, unkempt and a heavy drinker, whereas Darnay is well-mannered, calm and a gentleman. Carton realizes that he could lead a decent life like Darnay, but because of his bad habits, he has lost the chance. Now, he has no hope of having a happy life with someone like Lucie. For this reason, Carton dislikes Darnay because Darnay reminds him of the life he has lost. Though Charles Darnay is the male protagonist of this novel, Sidney Carton catches the attention of the readers for his interesting character. He is just the opposite of Darnay who is almost boring.

Transformation of Sentences Part Eight (8): Simple to Complex

Transforming sentences from one structure to another structure is perhaps the most difficult task. In this article, I have given some problems regarding changing sentences from simple to complex. I have also provided solutions to every problem. I hope that it will help you to learn how to transform a simple sentence into a complex. 

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Transform the following sentences from simple to complex:

1.   The healthy cows give us much milk.

Answer: The cows which are healthy give us much milk.

2.   I was there in autumn.

Answer: I was there when it was autumn.

3.   Undoubtedly smoking causes cancer.

Answer: There is no doubt that smoking causes cancer.

4.   The committee considered him to be the fittest candidate.

Answer: The committee considered that he was the fittest candidate.

5.   The accident took place in the evening.

Answer: The accident took place when it was evening.

6.   There were two people on board.

Answer: There were two people who were on board.

7.   I am sure of passing the examination with credit.

Answer: I am sure that I will pass the examination with credit.

8.   The cuckoo sings in spring.

Answer: The cuckoo sings when it is spring.

9.   Unexpectedly I met him in the college campus.

Answer: It was unexpected that I met him in the college campus.

10.                The cars made in Japan run well.

Answer: The cars which are made in Japan run well.

11.                Standing by the window, the girl looked out.

Answer: When the girl stood by the window, she looked out.

12.                Truly agriculture is the backbone of our economy.

Answer: It is true that agriculture is the backbone of our economy.

13.                Jumping into a cab, she cried gaily.

Answer: When she jumped into a cab, she cried gaily.

14.                I do not know his name.

Answer: I do not know what his name is.

15.                Bangladesh needs honest administrators.

Answer: Bangladesh needs administrators who are honest.

16.                Villagers using fire-wood as fuel are destroying the country’s forest.

Answer: Villagers who use fire-wood as fuel are destroying the country’s forest.

17.                Women having no work pass their time watching television.

Answer: Women who have no work pass their time watching television.

18.                Because of killing the albatross, the old man was punished.

Answer: Since the old man killed the albatross, he was punished.

19.                They saw the drunken porter lying on the floor.

Answer: They saw the drunken porter who was lying on the floor.

20.                I saw a bird flying in the sky.

Answer: I saw a bird which was flying in the sky.

21.                He could not continue his study for poverty.

Answer: He could not continue his study because he was poor.

22.                He is too weak to move.

Answer: He is so weak that he cannot move.

23.                A dishonest boy suffers in life.

Answer: A boy who is dishonest suffers in life.

24.                Coming in the darkness, he knocked at the door.

Answer: When he came in the darkness, he knocked at the door.

25.                An industrious boy can shine in life.

Answer: A boy who is industrious can shine in life.

26.                The sun having set, we reached home.

Answer: We reached home after the sun had set.

27.                The sun having risen, the fog dispersed.

Answer: The fog dispersed after the sun had risen.

28.                Students desiring to go abroad are to complete IELTS.

Answer: Students who desire to go abroad are to complete IELTS.

29.                They agreed to my proposal.

Answer: They agreed to the proposal I made. Or, They agreed to what I proposed.

30.                We wish your success.

Answer: We wish that you may succeed.

31.                The gifts are too nice to be used just at present.

Answer: The gifts are so nice that they cannot be used just at present.

32.                In spite of having knowledge, Mr. Matin was not selected.

Answer: Though Mr. Matin had knowledge, he was not selected.

33.                Monir was loved by all because of his honesty.

Answer: Since Monir was honest, he was loved by all.

34.                The marriage ceremony being over, the guests were going to the feast.

Answer: When the marriage ceremony was over, the guests were going to the feast.

35.                Knowledge is power.

Answer: It is knowledge which is power.

36.                Twenty years ago, I was living in Paris.

Answer: It was twenty years ago when I was living in Paris.

37.                I was admitted to school at the age of five.

Answer: I was admitted to school when I was five.

38.                His silence proves his guilt.

Answer: His silence proves that he is guilty.

39.                His failure is almost certain.

Answer: It is almost certain that he will fail.

40.                I know his residence.

Answer: I know where his residence is.

41.                Everybody wishes to be happy.

Answer: Everybody wishes so that they may be happy.

42.                Health is wealth.

Answer: It is health which is wealth.

43.                Unity is strength.

Answer: It is unity which is strength.

44.                Everybody hates him for his laziness.

Answer: Everybody hates him because he is lazy.

45.                They walked too slowly to catch the bus.

Answer: They walked so slowly that they could not catch the bus.

46.                She hoped to win the first prize.

Answer: She hoped that she would win the first prize.

47.                I dislike him for his laziness.

Answer: I dislike him because he is lazy.

48.                The girl went to a hair shop to sell her hair.

Answer: The girl went to a hair shop so that she could sell her hair.

49.                Entering the classroom, the teacher found the boys gossiping.

Answer: When the teacher entered the classroom, he found the boys gossiping.

50.                Running fast, the boy got the first prize.

Answer: Since the boy ran fast, he got the first prize.

51.                The authoress wanted quiet isolation to do some troublesome writing.

Answer: The authoress wanted quiet isolation so that she could do some troublesome writing.

52.                The farmers sow good seeds to get good crops.

Answer: The farmers sow good seeds so that they can get good crops.

53.                The load being very heavy, he cannot carry it.

Answer: Since the load is very heavy, he cannot carry it.

54.                Having forgotten him, I went outside the cabin.

Answer: When I had forgotten him, I went outside the cabin.

55.                I was startled to see the bill of fare.

Answer: I was startled when I saw the bill of fare.

56.                One day the old man watched some water snakes swimming round the ship.

Answer: One day the old man watched some water snakes which were swimming round the ship.

57.                The Magi brought valuable gifts.

Answer: The Magi brought gifts which were valuable.

58.                Taking exercise regularly, he built a good health.

Answer: Since he took exercise regularly, he built a good health.

59.                You came here only at four.

Answer: You came here when you were four.

60.                On the arrival of my mutton chop, she took me to task.

Answer: When my mutton chop arrived, she took me to task.

61.                Surely he will join the party.

Answer: It is sure that he will join the party.

62.                Certainly she has got a scholarship.

Answer: It is certain that she has got a scholarship.

63.                Tell me the truth.

Answer: Tell me what the truth is.

64.                I read them for pleasure.

Answer: I read them so that I can get pleasure.

65.                They were rewarded for their industry.

Answer: They were rewarded because they were industrious.

66.                I could not go to college because of my illness.

Answer: I could not go to college because I was ill.

67.                Fire wood burnt for cooking causes much harm to our agriculture.

Answer: Fire wood which is burnt for cooking causes much harm to our agriculture.

68.                I think him to be honest.

Answer: I think that he is honest.

69.                At daylight I was half awakened by the sound of chopping.

Answer: When it was daylight, I was half awakened by the sound of chopping.

70.                Finding the door unlocked, the thief entered the house.

Answer: When the thief found the door unlocked, he entered the house.

71.                The question was too tough for the students to answer.

Answer: The question was so tough that the students could not answer.

72.                We read to learn.

Answer: We read so that we can learn.

73.                He helped me in my danger.

Answer: He helped me when I was in danger.

74.                In spite of his working hard, he could not reach his goal.

Answer: Though he worked hard, he could not reach his goal.

75.                Going to my brother, I informed him of the matter.

Answer: When I went to my brother, I informed him of the matter.

76.                Despite hard work, the poor cannot change their lots.

Answer: The poor work hard but they cannot change their lots.

77.                I am sorry to hear of his failure.

Answer: I am sorry that I have heard of his failure.

78.                Put down your name.

Answer: Put down what your name is.

79.                In fact, he is not poor.

Answer: It is a fact that he is not poor.